Facts about Polar Bears

Source: Artic Kingdom

Here are some very interesting facts about these giants of the North:

·         Polar bears are fantastic swimmers.

·         They have pretty small tails (7-12 cm long).

·         Their whole body is covered with fur except for their nose tip and paw pads.

·         Polar bears are fast and can run at 25mph for short distances, usually while charging prey

·         There are 20-25,000 polar bears remaining in the Arctic.

·         Polar bears are perfectly suited to their environment because they have furry, anti-slip feet and heat-conserving ears.

·         Their fur is thick, two-layered, and oily to repel water and prevent their coats from freezing.

·         Interestingly, their fur is white because the sunlight is reflected back down the hair-shaft to heat the skin.

·         They moult every year whereby they replace their fur completely

·         Their skin is black in order to soak up the sun’s heat efficiently.

·         A polar bear is well insulated by a thick layer of fat under the skin, especially in water.

·         Their ears are furry but smaller than other bears’ so that they can retain heat more effectively and help keep them warm in winter temperatures that can reach -30^OC.

·         Its nose is a valuable hunting tool because most of the food occurs under the ice.

·         They also have an amazing sense of smell. In fact, they can smell a seal up to a km away – even under the ice!

·         Their nostrils close when they’re under water.

·         Polar bears need to eat about 2kg of fat each day.

·         They are the biggest of all bear species.

Source: Travel4Wildlife

·         Males (boars), weigh up to 800kg.

Source: Polar Bear International

Reference:

http://assets.wwf.org.uk/downloads/polar_bear_exploredownload.pdf

International Polar Bear Day

Source: Telegraph

Source: Daily Mail

Today is an important day on every environmentalist’s and animal lover’s calendar: It is International Polar Bear Day. This day is celebrated annually on the 27^th of February. It is celebrated to raise vital awareness about the conservation status of this beautiful species. It is organised by Polar Bears International to put a spotlight on the impact of global warming and a reduction of sea ice on polar bear populations.

Polar Bears, like many other species, are under threat as a result of climate change. The Arctic is warming roughly twice as fast as the global average, causing the ice that polar bears depend on to melt away. The sea ice is melting earlier and forming later each year. Polar bears require the sea ice to hunt seals, which are their main prey. Because a significant amount of sea ice reduction takes place, it affects their survival and breeding success because they have to fast for longer periods at a time.

Source: Polar Bear World

Source: Telegraph

So please join us in celebrating the white giants of the North.

DEFINING A WETLAND

Wetlands are the most biologically diverse and rich ecosystems on Earth. Because of wetlands’ variation in size and location, it is often difficult to define the concept. Nonetheless, wetlands are transition zones between land and aquatic systems where the water table is usually near or at the surface, or the land is covered by shallow water. According to the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands; “Wetlands are areas of marsh, fen, peatland or water, whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, including areas of marine water the depth of which at low tide does not exceed six metres." Wetlands occur where the landform (topography) or geology slows down or obstructs the movement of water through a catchment causing the surface soil layers in the wetland area to be temporarily, seasonally, or permanently waterlogged.


Source: Geo41

A wetland is a distinctive ecosystem. The wetland biome consists of any body of water (either fresh or salt) that stands still and lies low. Wetlands are normally located near a river, lake, or stream. It is a land area saturated with water, which can be both permanent and seasonal. Examples of wetlands are marshes and ponds, the edge of a lake or ocean, the delta at the mouth of a river, and low-lying areas that frequently flood.

Differences in wetlands exist because of regional and local variances in soils, topography, climate, hydrology, water chemistry, vegetation, and other factors, including human disturbance. Wetlands support aquatic and terrestrial species. Water saturation (hydrology) ultimately determines how the soil develops and the types of plant and animal communities that occur here.

 



Source: Nature.org

The growth of specially adapted plants and the promotion of the development of characteristic wetland (hydric) soils are possible because of the prolonged presence of water that creates favourable conditions.

 

In a wetland the water level varies throughout the year. The growth of specially adapted plants and the promotion of the development of characteristic wetland (hydric) soils are possible because of the prolonged presence of water that creates favourable conditions.

Wetlands are distributed all over the world and occur in every climatic zone, from the polar regions to the tropics. They are found in areas wherever climate and landscape cause groundwater to discharge to the land surface or prevent rapid drainage from the land surface so that soils are saturated for some time.

A wetland is a vitally important environment asset. A high number of plant and animal species are abundantly found in wetlands.

Reference:
http://www.wetlands.org/Whatarewetlands/tabid/202/Default.aspx

FACTS ABOUT WETLANDS

      ·         The wetland biome includes swamps, bogs, and marshes. 

·         Alarmingly, 64 % of the world’s wetlands have disappeared since 1900.

·         Freshwater species populations declined by 76 % between 1970 and 2010.

·         The wetlands that do still remain are often so degraded that the people who directly rely on them for fish, plants, and wildlife – often the very poor – are driven into even deeper poverty.

·         Some birds remain at a particular wetland all year long while other birds migrate from wetland to wetland.

·         Many wetlands serve as a reservoir for excessive rainfall to prevent flooding.   

·         Wetlands can be made of freshwater, saltwater, or a combination of the two. 

·         Wetland biomes typically remain humid and moist at all times making it the perfect home for many animals. 

·         There is more animal diversity in the wetland biome than any other biome type. 

·         Wetland biomes are responsible for keeping rivers at a normal level. They hold water and then release it to the river as needed. 

·         We depend on wetlands to supply freshwater for our daily needs, but more than one billion people around the world depend directly on wetlands to earn an income.

·         Coastal, marine, and inland wetlands are declining fast. Approximately 40 % have been degraded in just over 40 years and is continuing at an accelerated rate of 1.5 % annually.

 

 

CELEBRATING WORLD WETLANDS DAY

World Wetlands Day is celebrated annually on 2 February. It falls specifically on this day because it marks the anniversary of the signing of the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance (Ramsar Convention) in Ramsar, Iran, on the shores of the Caspian Sea, on 2 February 1971. World Wetlands Day was first celebrated in 1997.

This is an important day on every environmentalist’s calendar because it raise public awareness of wetland values and benefits for humanity and the planet. It is also important as it fervently promote the conservation and wise and sustainable use of wetlands. Government agencies, non-government organisations, and community groups have all participated in raising important environmental awareness and the Ramsar Convention in particular.

Each year, World Wetlands Day focuses on a different theme and putting the spotlight on a vital function of wetlands. The theme for 2016 is Wetlands for our Future: Sustainable Livelihoods. This was chosen based on the fact that wetlands play a vital role for not only the current but also the future wellbeing of humanity. It also emphasis the promotion of the wise use of all wetlands. Also it will look specifically at their relevance towards achieving the new Sustainable Development Goals. Furthermore, it is about drawing attention to urgently acting towards slowing, stopping, and reversing wetland degradation. We can’t achieve sustainable development without healthy wetlands.

 

 

This year, you too can spread the green word by visiting www.worldwetlandsday.org which is running a photography competition for people aged 15 to 24. The prize is a flight to any wetlands destination anywhere in the world, courtesy of Star Alliance Biosphere Connections. Please do your bit to counteract the loss and degradation of wetlands. Let’s raise awareness of protecting wetlands, not only on World Wetlands Day, but also beyond, so that future generations can also experience the beauty that is wetlands.

 

Source: UN.

Because wetlands work for us, we need to work for wetlands!

Important Environmental Dates

There are several international environmental days that are celebrated annually to raise awareness about particular environmental issues as well as to show that you care for the environment, including:

·         February 2 - World Wetlands Day

  

·         March 3 – World Wildlife Day

      ·         March 21 - International Day of Forests and the Tree 

·         March 22 - World Water Day

·         April 13 - International Plant Appreciation Day

·         April 22 - Earth Day

·         May 22 - International Day for Biological Diversity

·         May 30 - Water a Flower Day

·         June 05 - World Environment Day

·         June 08 - World Oceans Day

·         June 17 - World Day to Combat Desertification

·         July 11 - World Population Day

·         September 16 - International Day for the Preservation of the Ozone Layer

·         September 22 - World Car Free Day

·         September 25 - World Rivers Day

·         October 4 - World Animal Day

·         October 13 - International Day for Natural Disaster Reduction

·         October 16 - World Food Day

LIVEABILITY IN CITIES

Cities have an abundance of potential where an economy can prosper. It is of utmost importance that cities must develop sustainably and also a balance must be sought between the city’s social, economic, and, important, environmental needs. However, this doesn’t always occur and urban settlements aren’t always effectively managed.

There were 7.2 Billion people worldwide in 2014; 6 billion were in less developed countries and 1.2 billion were in more developed countries. Today, half of the world’s population of 3.5 billion people is living in cities. According to United Nations, nearly 60 per cent of the world’s population will live in cities by 2030. By 2030, it is projected that 6 out of 10 people will reside in urban areas and the number will increase to 7 out of 10 people by 2050 (Khar Ee &Suet Leng 2014; Population Reference Bureau 2014).

Liveability is essentially about living a good, healthy, and sustainable life and about enjoyment, satisfaction, and fulfilment with one’s life. A liveable place is safe, clean, beautiful, economically vital, and affordable to a diverse population and efficiently administered, with functional infrastructure, ample parks, effective public transportation, and broad opportunities for employment. It also connotes a sense of community. Liveability refers to those spatial, social, and environmental characteristics and qualities that uniquely contribute to people's sense of personal and collective wellbeing and to their sense of satisfaction in being the residents of that particular settlement (UN Habitat 1996; Balsas 2004).

Measuring liveability of a city enables planners to see where the city’s weaknesses and strengths are. There are five dimensions of liveability, including vitality, sense, fit, access, and control. Balsas (2004) further notes and add a six element of “viability. These elements provide a context for discussion of the spatial, physical, social, and political organisation of various types of urban development”. Other aspects of liveability can also be subjective based on the fact how an individual perceive their satisfaction and happiness.

Zarin & Tarantash (2011) note that neighbourhood liveability includes density, walkability, transportation availability, land use and distribution, housing choice and affordability, leisure use spaces & opportunities, and special amenities and place qualities.

How an all-inclusive, resilient, liveable, and authentic city should look like. Source: The Philips Center for Health and Wellbeing [sa].

POLICIES, GUIDELINES, OR BENCHMARKS FOR LIVEABILITY

In order to counteract the various liveability problems that a city so often experience, it is important that there exist policies, guidelines and benchmarks in order to ensure that cities are sustainable and healthy. Several documents are valuable in the liveability realm, including:

1)    The Habitat Agenda (referring to Chapter IV: B. Adequate shelter for all and C. Sustainable  human settlements development in an urbanizing world).

2)    Agenda 21 (under the section Promoting Sustainable Human Settlement Development)

3)    Economist Intelligence Unit's Liveability ranking

4)    Mercer's Quality of Living Reports

5)    Monocle's Most Liveable Cities Index

The Habitat Agenda (referring to Chapter IV: B. Adequate shelter for all and C. Sustainable human settlements development in an urbanizing world) of the UN was selected. This enables local governments to adopt similar approaches and adapt it to their own needs and development problems. It deals with (UN Habitat Agenda 1996) adequate shelter for all; sustainable land use; Population and sustainable human settlements development; social development; environmentally sustainable, healthy and liveable human settlements; and sustainable transport and communication systems. This is an extremely useful and valuable document in order to achieve sustainable human settlements and in particular liveable cities. Local governments can use it as a universal benchmark and apply and modify it to suit its individual issues, especially in a developing cities which faces other, more pressing socio-economic problems. Under section 135 of the Habitat Agenda (UN Habitat 1996), it gives guidelines about liveability as it influences the quality of life.

Achieving sustainable human settlements. Because liveability includes the good, effective shelter, transports services, and other basic services, the Agenda 21 (under the section Promoting Sustainable Human Settlement Development) can also provide very good policies and benchmark for liveability purposes. It is an important blueprint that must be used nationally and locally by governments and organisations. Related objectives include: providing adequate shelter for all; promoting sustainable land-use planning and management; promoting the integrated provision of environmental infrastructure: water, sanitation, drainage, and solid-waste management; promoting sustainable energy and transport systems in human settlements; and promoting sustainable construction industry activities.

Two extensively known measures of liveability are the Economist Intelligence Unit's Liveability ranking and Mercer's Quality of Living Reports. They have, on a global scale, provide a valuable measurement of certain criteria of how good a city is and how liveable it really is. They calculate liveability of cities from around the world, using both subjective life-satisfaction as well as objective quality of life measurements. The EIU Liveability ranking assesses stability; healthcare; culture and environment; education; and infrastructure which are essential in good liveability (EIU Liveability ranking 2015).

Monocle's Most Liveable Cities Index include Safety/Crime, Climate/Sunshine, Connectivity, Public Transportation, Quality of Architecture, Environmental Issues, and Access to Nature, and Urban Design. When these aspects are achieve it will lead to good liveability in a city.

GEOGRAPHICAL TOOLS TO DEAL WITH LIVEABILITY ISSUES

Various geographical tools are readily available to deal with liveability issues.

Geodesign assist in providing a framework to organise methods in order to construct liveability indicators thoroughly and accurately. Geodesign combines geography with design by providing designers with robust tools that support rapid evaluation of design alternatives against the impacts of those designs. Globalization, population growth, climate change, and increasing demands for resources are serious problems. Geodesign is the solution. Geodesign can assist developers and planners to make a more liveable city and especially in local areas where geographical contexts differ considerably (Esri 2010).

Geospatial Technology (computer-based mapping techniques) look at spatial data to acquire, analyse, process, and report information by looking at the spatial organisation of people, places, and environments on the earth’s surface to assist in the decision-making process and solve energy supply and demand problems in human settlements. Spatial information on energy sources and usages in settlements are of importance as the population continuously grows. Different tools can assist in dealing with the aforementioned challenges (Esri 2010).

GIS spatially views and analyses information to depict patterns, see correlations, and come to conclusions and look at changes of spatial patterns over time. By understanding geography and people's relationship to location, we can make informed decisions about the way we live on our planet. GIS can deliver insights from data by identifying, displaying, analysing, and deciphering real-world problems. A geographic information system (GIS) is a technological tool for comprehending geography and making intelligent decisions (Esri 2010).

GIS, being a good spatial problem-solving tool, integrates hardware, software, and data for capturing, managing, analysing geographically referenced information (Elliot 2014). GIS’ ability to manage, integrate, analyse, and visualize very large and complex data is making it an essential platform for creating the sustainable cities of the future Patterns of distributed data mashups (both tabular and map) are increasingly being implemented in cities (Dangermond 2014).

Remote sensing (obtaining information from a distant to observe spectral, spatial, and temporal resolution) as a technology is valuable because electricity demand continuous greatly in South Africa and is especially a problem in rural, more inaccessible areas and can be used as a point layer to spatially plot different class features that will require electrification in the future e.g. a dense informal area.

GIS functionalities, including spatial and database management and analysis, and cartography can help as a solution for geographic problem-solving in particular when it is complex. For example, it can configure a transportation network. Because residents in cities are so vulnerable and at risk of hazards, GIS can help to analyse potential risks and integrate it into the planning phase.

In terms of population and walkability, GIS maps can measure the number of residents within a convenient walk of a specific facility. GIS helps to assist in understanding the geographical world. It can demonstrate how differently an issue affects different populations or geographical areas e.g. in an informal and formal settlement (Esri 2008; Esri 2010). GIS can also show the accessibility of a certain area. It is possible to measure the distance to the city centre and where open spaces are located and compare it to the total urban area. Population density measures the compactness of an urban area and is done by comparing the population with the urban area. Remote sensing and GIS can be combined to look at where urban poverty occurs. So too can QOL be analysed in a city through GIS. GIS data can also so built environment according to their tabular attributes as well as help with research on walking and other physical activities in a city.

SUGGESTIONS ON HOW TO APPROVE LIVEABILITY

Various categories exists where improvements can be made and will be thoroughly considered in order for a city, on the long haul, to be a sustainable, liveable, and resilient city. This also means that the overall wellbeing of the residents will be significantly improved. A balance between economic, environmental, and social necessities must be reached.

It is thus vitally important that human settlement strategies should mainly focus on establishing viable integrated communities, which are both social and economic sound, and conveniently located close to economic opportunities and important amenities as well as have affordable transport to do so. Human settlements must be economically resilient and environmentally sound in order to become sustainable. In order for a city to become an all-inclusive, healthy, and sustainable city, it will be important to improve resident’s quality of life by looking at the following aspects:

Land use

The zoning must be changed so that it can become mixed-use. Affordable, accessible land can help to prevent poverty and assist migrants. When designing new settlements, it is important that it is closely located to transport corridors, thereby ensuring that people live a dignified and healthy life.

Safety and vulnerability

Vulnerable groups must be given maximum attention and to break down the barriers to shelter, education, work and other basic services. To limit criminal activity, social and recreational activities must be in place. All people must be able to live and thrive in a comfortable and safe and healthy environment. Criminal activities can be curbed by providing plenty of employment opportunities, transport, education, and housing.

Housing

Housing development must take place and integrate public transport services and an integration of basic services should take place, by way of locating economic and social facilities and amenities (leading to socio-economic interaction) close to a residential area so that it will make the built environment in close proximity to where people work and relax. This will ensure all community members will have equal access to such amenities and facilities. Housing must be supplied to all people in a community at an accelerate pace in order to provide for the huge backlog by making more space available, properly upgrading existing structures, and must be affordable, of good quality and be supplied with thorough basic services. Housing must also be equitable and energy-efficient and available to all ages, and races. It must also be fiscally sustainable. It is important that all people’s needs are fully met. These houses must be integrated with existing infrastructure of a settlement and well-located (close to important amenities) and well-managed.

Connectivity/Transportation uses

It is important to promote connectivity across the whole region and curb transportation gaps. Congestion must be limited and that fuel efficiency take place. It must be affordable, reliant, fast, frequent, and efficient. It must use as little resources as possible while simultaneously limiting air, water, noise emissions, and waste. Transport options must also become more economically and must be of a high quality. Roads must be widen or the number of cars must be reduced.

Walkability/Mobility

Social amenities and important facilities must be accessible within a few minutes’ walk. Mobility helps to minimise the distance covered and make less accessible places more easily accessible. Accessibility is so important in order to effortlessly reach goods and services. Walkability and the improvement thereof relates to land use, street design, and affordability. Streets and paths must be connected to all facilities and activities. More jobs must available close to the very dense residential areas.

Public Participation

Public participation must be at the forefront of planning and the decision-making process and promote community involvement for this process to become more inclusive. Interested and affected parties must be fully part of the spatial planning as this will lead to social Integration.

Built environment

Streets, buildings, and spaces must be integrated, green and inclusive of all people. Buildings must be disaster-resistant, durable, and sturdy. Renewable building materials must be mostly used.

Green spaces

It is important to encourage more green space as well as green infrastructure. Alternative technologies (e.g. Solar Water Heaters, grey water recycling and solar and energy efficient lighting to informal settlements) must be explored in order to increases sustainable resource use. Energy poverty must be addressed adequately.

CONCLUSION

Cities are urban sprawls which face a lot of challenges in terms of integrating sustainability and liveability. Several developing cities face serious liveability issues. But, it is possible to make it a more sustainable, liveable, and equitable city through improvements in the transport, walkability, housing, and vulnerability and safety sections. This will enable people not only to live a happy life but also a prosperous one. Liveability is of utmost importance in a city, when the liveability is good, the quality of life is good. Liveability is essentially about living a good, healthy, and sustainable life. When the liveability is poor, it impedes people’s quality of life and their ability to lead a prosperous and happy life. Several geographical tools are useful as a solution for these problems as well as international and national documents are available as benchmarks to fully equip a city in order to live sustainably.

REFERENCES

Balsas, C.R.L. 2004. Measuring the livability of an urban centre: an exploratory study of key performance indicators. Planning Practice & Research, 19:1, 101-110.

ESRI. 2010. Best practices: GIS for Renewable Energy.

ESRI. 2008. GIS Best Practices: Essays on Geography and GIS.

EIU. A Summary of the Liveability Ranking and Overview August 2015.

Khar Ee, C.O. & Suet Leng, K. Issues and challenges of a liveable and creative city: The case of Penang, Malaysia. 2014. Geografia Online: Malaysian Journal of Society and Space 10 issue 3 (33-43) 33.

Population Reference Bureau. 2014. World Population Data Sheet.

The Habitat Agenda Goals and Principles, Commitments and the Global Plan of Action.

The Philips Center for Health and Wellbeing. [Sa]. A livable and lovable city? Insight Series on Livable Cities Nr. 1.

UNEP. 2007. Liveable Cities The Benefits Of Urban Environmental Planning A Cities Alliance Study on Good Practices and Useful Tools.

United Nations. 1996. The Habitat Agenda: Chapter IV: C. Sustainable human settlements development in an urbanizing world. 

Salinization

Introduction

Salinization will be evaluated by referring to the causes, humans as contributors, and the effect of vulnerability and consequences in order to get a better idea of what the phenomenon of salinization entails.

Salinization causes


Source: Azernews

Salinity is a significant environmental contaminant. As Cañedo-Argüelles et al. (2013) note, both “primary (accumulation of salts originating from natural sources) and secondary salinization (which refer to anthropogenic increases in salinity and which is further amplified by climate change)” are responsible for this phenomena.

 

Extensive land-use changes in dryland regions occur, causing run-off salinities to increase as salt is mobilized from subsurface waters. Secondary salinization is caused by irrigation. Natural lakes’ salinities in drylands accelerate as water is diverted from inflows for irrigation. Deforestation leads to salinization. Mining activity is responsible for salts that enter rivers. Rising saline groundwater tables cause the salinization of some fresh waters. In the cold regions of the world stream salinization is the result of the use of salts as de-icing agents for roads (Williams et al., 2000; Löfgren, 2001; Ruth, 2003; Cañedo-Argüelles et al. 2013). Clearing of natural vegetation is another source.
 

Coal and salt mining, soda production factories, sewage and industrial effluents, and increases in river salinities may result from the construction of impoundments are also sources of salinization. (Williams 2001; Cañedo-Argüelles et al. 2013). Salinity intrusion can be caused by sea level rise (SLR) and extreme events such as cyclones. Natural salinity of rivers is complex including, “weathering of the catchment; sea spray; small amounts of salts dissolved in rainwater as a consequence of evaporation of seawater (Cañedo-Argüelles et al. 2013).
 

Salinization causes leading to other impacts

Dryland salinity causes soil erosion. The removal of indigenous plants and the clearing of forests lead to soil erosion, and amplify the occurrence of more salts present in the soil. Salinity can be ascribed to prolonged wetness and where there is limited surface cover. This will lead to soils to erode. Cyclone and storm surges induced by climate change force saline water into agricultural lands along the coast, which damages crops not only in the year the cyclone hits, but for several years afterwards (Rabbani et al. 2013). The risk of flooding occurs when shallow water tables occur as soils don’t have the capacity to adequately absorb rainfall, which ultimately leads to higher run-off rates. Terrestrial biodiversity is also negatively impacted as it’s destroyed at an unprecedented rate, causing loss of biodiversity in salt-affected areas. Food shortages will be prevalent and would then ultimately lead to famine.

Spatial and temporal scale

Spatial
Salinity and its severity is greatly felt in dryland countries, and semi-arid and arid regions. Salinization occur in arid and cold regions. In the arid and semi-arid regions of the world where crop production consumes large quantities of water, irrigation and rising of groundwater tables are the main causes of secondary salinization In the cold regions of the world stream salinization is the result of the use of salts as de-icing agents for roads. It is significant in parts of central and South America, south-western North America, the Middle East and central Asia, and parts of Australia. Coastal communities are experiencing saline intrusion caused by extreme events. The salinization of freshwater lakes is most obvious and significant in dryland regions but is not confined to them (Cañedo-Argüelles et al. 2013; Williams 2001).

Temporal

Salts can be stored in soils, sub-soils and groundwater because of aridity previously experienced and then released after a long period and occurs at different time scales. Irrigation leads to mobilising large fossil salt storage, dating from another saline geographical history in the soil. Cyclone and storm surges induced by climate change force saline water into agricultural lands along the coast, which damages crops not only in the year the cyclone hits, but for several years afterwards.

Future changes will lead to further salinization. Climate change is likely to increase river salinity in some regions e.g. a decrease in the amount of precipitation. The Australian Dryland Salinity Assessment (NLWRA, 2000)(as cited in Cañedo-Argüelles et al. 2013), predicted that 3.1 million ha of land will be affected by salt by the year 2050 and up to 20,000km of streams could be significantly salt affected over the next 20 years.
 

Humans as contributors

Salinization can be natural or human-induced. Many inland waters are becoming more saline from human activities. Change is being brought about by secondary or anthropogenic salinization. In this process, catchment changes and other anthropogenic disturbances to hydrological cycles increase salt loads to water-bodies: fresh waters become saline and saline waters become even more saline (Rabbani et al. 2013; Williams 2001).

Anthropogenic salinization is distinct from natural or primary salinization which is responsible for the development of natural salt lakes. Primary salinization involves the accumulation in closed basins of salts from rainwater and leached from terrestrial sources at rates unaffected by human activities. Natural salt lakes have been the focus of most limnologic studies of saline waters (Williams 2001).

Increasing energy demands are likely to increase mining activity, e.g. coal consumption for electricity is expected to increase 42% from 2008 to 2030 (US Department of Energy, 2008). Therefore, the future predictions clearly indicate that river salinization will globally increase (i.e. more streams will be impacted and the salt stress will increase in already degraded streams) (Cañedo-Argüelles et al. 2013).
 

Poverty, low-level resilience, and lack of alternative livelihoods, together with climate-induced hazards, are responsible for huge losses. The proportion of salinity-free farmland has gone down over the past 20 years, from more than 60% to nil. Almost all saline-free and low-salinity farmland has turned into medium- or high-salinity farmland, which has a severe impact on agricultural productivity. Salinity intrusion is the main cause of declining rice production (Rabbani et al. 2013).

Climate change, including salinity intrusion caused by extreme events (e.g., cyclone and storm surge) and slow-onset events (e.g., SLR) are leading to negative impacts on almost every economic sector, including agriculture, livelihood activities, food security and public health. A future cyclone with a higher level of storm surge could cause saline intrusion further into the landmass, thus threatening the whole coastal region and its 33 million people. Poorer households will experience significantly greater loss and damage as a result (Rabbani et al. 2013).
 

The extreme poor are disproportionately affected by salinity as a percentage of their income, by comparison to non-poor households. About one-third of people living on the coast will be badly affected. This is mainly because most of the coastal population depends on rice cultivation for their livelihoods and food security. Poor farmers are severely affected by salinity intrusion in rice fields (Rabbani et al. 2013).
 

Households are bearing the burden of loss and damage in rice farming, and the costs of repair and reconstruction of damaged infrastructure and local facilities. Loss of productivity due to illness caused by food shortages would push these poorer groups into even greater poverty. Increasingly, people are moving from the coast, mainly because of loss of livelihood opportunities. This internal migration (rural-urban, coastal-central) will intensify as sea levels continue to rise, as extreme weather events become more frequent, and if adaptation options remain inadequate (Rabbani et al. 2013).
 

By 1980, between 80 and 110 million ha of irrigated land (34–47% of all irrigated land) had been effected by salinization to some degree (FAO 1990). The impacts of anthropogenic salinization are far-reaching, increasing, deleterious, and largely irreparable. Environmental, social, and economic costs are high. In some countries, anthropogenic salinization represents the most important threat to water resources (Williams 2001). Economic losses include the loss or a diminished value of water supplies for domestic, agricultural, and other needs.
 

Conclusion

The relative importance of salt lakes is now rapidly and significantly increasing. Management responses are of several sorts. Cessation of vegetation clearance, restriction of dryland agriculture, and tree-planting will mitigate further salinization. Integrated catchment management is the key practice and needs to be emphasized more than the management of salinized waters (Williams 2001).

References:

Cañedo Argüelles, M., B.J. Kefford, C. Piscart, N. Prat, R.B. Schäfer and C.-J. Schulz (2013).

'Salinization of rivers: an urgent ecological issue'. Environmental Pollution, Volume 173, pp157–167.
 

Rabbani, G., Rahman, A., and Mainuddin, K. 2013. Salinity-induced loss and damage to farming households in coastal Bangladesh. International Journal of Global Warming, Volume 5, pp 400.
 

Middleton, N. 2008. A Global Casino: An introduction to Environmental Issues. 4th Edition. London: Hodder Education.
 

Williams, W.D. 2001. Anthropogenic salinization of inland waters. Hydrobiologia, Volume 466, pp 329-337.